To begin with, a Cadenza is not something a string arranger would usually write into an average 3 minute pop song or rock track but they can be added into other styles of music and apply to any instrument (not just strings!). A cadenza comes from the word ‘Cadence’ (a cadence is an ending either to a phrase or even section of a piece) and is essentially an ad libbed passage in a piece of music (usually at a Cadence) where a solo instrument breaks out from the rest into a flourish. In the baroque era, a singer would often embellish a cadence with an improvisation (normally near the end of an aria). Later, in the classical period the cadenza developed into an improvised solo at the end of the recapitulation section and before the coda of a first movement (normally a concerto). In this form, the soloist would take themes from the piece and develop them, often changing the form into something quite different yet still related to the original melody. Cadenzas became increasingly virtuosic, allowing the performer the chance to really demonstrate their skills on the instrument - and in many cases became quite a few minutes long. Nowadays, a cadenza is less commonly improvised and more often carefully composed before the performance to cleverly capture themes from the piece and gain the maximum impact whilst still feeling ‘improvised’. The performer has the complete attention of the audience during a cadenza so it’s important to ‘get it right’ and most cadenzas are carefully prepared beforehand.
In a string arrangement for a song, the length of the track will determine how long a cadenza might last but in modern pop or rock music it now takes the form of an instrumental break - where the vocalist and other instruments takes a pause and one of the instruments comes to the fore with a solo phrase or quick flourish, possibly only lasting a few seconds. An appropriate section could be at the end of the introduction, before the first verse begins.
So how does a cadenza differ from say, a guitar solo? In a guitar solo the beat or pulse of the track continues underneath - sometimes the same chords repeat, allowing the guitar to float over the top with improvised runs. In a cadenza, the beat of the music stops completely (like a pause), allowing the instrument to provide a fill in until the music starts where it left off. A cadenza is usually a solo instrument, but there’s no reason why a whole section of instruments couldn’t play one!
‘Double Stopping’ is a term used to describe the simultaneous playing of two notes on a stringed instrument. It is a versatile technique which can encompass melodies, harmonies, accompaniments and can be played in a virtuosic fashion at high speed. In the context of a string quartet, it can have the effect of making the group sound as if it is playing up to 8 parts at any one time which can create (when skillfully written) the impression of a far larger ensemble.
In the context of a string orchestra, the individual parts can either play double stopping - giving the music a thick and full feel, gaining in energy and effort or can ‘divisi’ - this means that on every ‘desk’ (two players to a desk) the left hand player plays the lower note whilst the person sitting on the right plays the upper note. This can thicken the harmonies with less effort required from the players, potentially sounding more lyrical and flowing.
One problem with writing double stops into a string arrangement, particularly when composed by non string players or composers writing at a keyboard is that they can end up being awkward or unplayable. If two notes are written on the same string (such as an E and a G to be played on the D string of a violin), this is not necessarily impossible to play as the musician can play it in a higher position but could in context make it uncomfortable or impractical to play. Composers must have a good insight into how stringed instruments work in order to write passages containing many double stops that feel ‘right’ under the fingers. Clients who have written their own arrangements, but who have less experience writing for strings are always welcome to send us through parts before a recording session. Sometimes it’s worth us spending a short amount of time re-notating some of the double stops so that they are written less awkwardly for the player - this saves time in the studio and gives a more natural feel to the music.
When a string compsoser or arranger wishes to create a specifically warm or hazy sound, they may well write in the direction ‘Sul Tasto’ meaning ‘on the touch or on the fingerboard’. In effect this means bringing the bow further away from the bridge until it is over the end of the finger board. Here, the string has less tension as it is further from the point of suspension on the bridge and therefore has less resistance, so cannot take as much pressure. Generally Sul Tasto is used for a softer dynamic (such as p or pp) and like a harmonic, a faster, gentler bow is utilised.
Yehudi Menuhin defines it as giving “….a velvety and cooing sound. The string is soft, not as resistant, and cannot take any pressure….”
When a full string section players Sul Tasto, the effect can be of a very soft sheen with any surface noise absorbed by having so many players. In a solo instrument, recording with a close microphone can pick up some of the surface noise (the bow against the string), but it has a lilting, ethereal quality, not unlike a flute.
Col Legno (meaning ‘with the wood’) is a special technique where the main wooden stick of the bow is tapped against the string - this percussive effect is rarely used but can have a distinctive sound when used in an orchestra or string section.
Col Legno is even less commonly used for a solo instrument and therefore it is at it’s most effective when a large group of players are doing it simultaneously.
Pieces to listen to that use Col Legno to great effect are Saint Saens’ ‘Danse Macabre’ where it is used to suggest the rattling of skeletons and also in Berlioz’s ‘Symphony Fantastique’ to represent the Dream of the Witches Sabbath, thirdly it is heard in Mars from Holst’s ‘Planets Suite’.
Some string players are nervous of using the technique as it can create scratch marks on the back of a pernambuco bow, however when used as Col Legno Tratto, the sound is very quiet and yet the pitch of the note is still evident with very little risk of damage to an expensive bow!
Counterpoint is the art of writing individual parts that have complete melodic independence from one another yet work in harmony and compliment each other perfectly. It is a skill that comes from an advanced understanding of harmony and an innate grasp of what will sound correct. If done with imagination and flair, counterpoint can completely transform any piece of music into something rich and complex.
Fortunately, there is no computer (as yet!) that can automatically write counterpoint - it is an art that comes from a human beings inspiration.
There have been many sessions that we have been asked to provide strings on where the string parts have been sustained in nature and harmonically slightly empty (often travelling in octaves or unison with little texture in the middle). This can be appropriate where the other instruments are busy in the track but often it’s inappropriate and doesn’t fully utilise the presence of live strings in the studio. In this context, counterpoint in the form of a skillful counter melody or an interesting, moving part can provide a special feeling adding climax and interest to the string parts. When a composer is completely reliant on a keyboard and therefore bases much of the writing on blocks of chords, then the strings never really come alive. It is the presence of the individual strands which make up a beautiful, flowing whole - rather like a tapestry with different threads and colours woven through it.
If a string arranger is considering writing a counter melody (whether above the tune or in the middle register to add detail underneath), they can start by playing around with the three notes of the triad in the existing chords (in the instance of a 7th chord, this may be 4 notes). Before long, a melody will start to unfold based on these notes and eventually the shape of the melody will emerge, often through passing notes which allow it to effortlessly travel from one chord to another in a smooth succession.
Here’s an example of a string arrangement I wrote for string quartet - based on the traditional Christmas tune ‘I Saw Three Ships’. Although many carol books suggested which chords to put with it, I was happier experimenting until it felt right.
Violins: Vaughan Jones and Louise Bevan, Viola: Adrian Smith, Cello: Tony Woollard
As an example of a counter melody, at around 16 seconds in, the second violin begins a counter melody to the same rhythm as the first violin. At 29 seconds in, the viola and cello have the same motif, an octave lower whilst the upper strings have a pizzicato figure to add rhythm and life. All the lines sound pleasing when played individually. The rhythm and tune is moved around between different instruments to add interest whilst the pizzicato bridge section builds up in thickness as well as volume to add climax. At 1 minute, a new counter melody is introduced like another layer being added in the second violin, whilst violin 1 and cello are in octaves. At 1 minute 20, the tune from the second violin breaks into the first violin part to dominate the piece with the main theme becoming secondary but still discernible. At around 1 minute 40 seconds, a totally new melody emerges that now replaces the main melody all together, yet is it is still in the same style and fits the chords harmoniously. At 1 minute 56, a canon in four parts is begun where part of the theme is treated fugally, passing from one instrument to another but always overlapping and building up a busy counterpoint which ends with the cello repeating a two bar phrase. The distinctive rhythm is kept going from 2 minute 15 onwards in the cello part whilst the second violin gets the melody and the first violin has an intricate and showy folk type accompaniment - this builds up to a climax before the two violins have an identical one bar phrase in sequence and the whole piece ends with the rhythm played by the viola in an echo of the opening of the piece.
Generally writing or arranging for strings does not always have to be this busy or intricate (unless they are required to be a real focal point!) but when strings are required to stand up in their own right (without additional instruments in a track), they need to really come alive!
In earlier blog entries, I wrote about how different bowing techniques can affect the sound of a violin or string section and how it can also help to create different moods or feelings within a string arrangement. Previously, I covered Martele, Spiccato and Marcato bowings and today I wanted to write something about Sautille bowing.
Sautille bowing is a form of spiccato which allows the natural bounce of the bow to create it’s own momentum and seems to allow the bow to bounce of it’s own accord. When the spiccato bowing is propelled at a fast speed, the amount of bow used becomes less and the area of the bow which touches the strings becomes further up (higher towards the tip of the bow). When this happens, the bow begins to spring with very little effort from the player.
In a string arrangement, this could be used for highly virtuosic passages where either a single note is repeated or the passage work is quick and furious. To write this in, an arranger would notate this the same as most other detached bow strokes with a dot at the top of the note head, but what would suggest to the player Sautille would be the rapid speed of the notes.
Sautille can be played at any dynamic or accented or double stopped to give real energy and flair to a string part.
This week I was asked to arrange strings for a dance track where they had to be very prominent. The brief was to make them sound aggressive and fast right from the introduction. The existing track was structured around four chords: F minor, B flat major, D flat major and B flat minor so there was ample opportunity to add rhythmically vibrant chords which repeated in staccato quavers. The accents gave the strings a dynamic style which will be compatible with the rest of the track. The challenge was to build up subtly throughout the track without peaking too soon but to give cohesion to the verses and chorus by retaining similar material. A string ‘hook’ appeared from the outset which then re-emerged later in the song, along with a counter melody in octaves in the violins which gave the piece added interest. The whole song died away at the end, the client seems pleased with the score and it’s now ready to be recorded by live session musicians.
A tremelo can be defined as being a ‘trembling’ or ‘quivering’ effect - this usually takes one of two forms. One is where a single note is rapidly bowed repeatedly and the other is a a fast oscillation between two notes (rather like a trill) - with the gap between the two notes being wider than a trill.
A tremelo might be rhythmically even, or unmeasured (which can also be written as tremolando). The unmeasured version would be used where a composer or arranger instructs the notes to be simply played as quickly as possible - this technique is used often when adding strings to pop and rock tracks and can add a feeling of tension to a piece of music. Tremeloes can also be given an accent at the beginning (which means the first note of the tremelo is emphasised to give it a ‘kick’) - this can convey a feeling of tension even further and is particularly effective with a full string section rather than writing for single strings.
In string arranging, a tremolando can also be used very quietly - and if the whole of the string section are playing this way at the same time, it can give a rumbling feeling of something imminently about to happen - so instead of having a chord held, it can lend a sense of anticipation and of course add all important variety to a string arrangement.
Many of the jobs that we’ve worked on have been for clients who have sent us string parts they’ve written themselves from a midi file. Scoring from midi requires no knowledge of music theory or written notation and often involves the composer playing parts into a keyboard and then printing off the results.
Whilst this is a useful tool in many situations, it rarely produces results that sound convincing for string players once we’re in the studio. Here’s an example: If the composer has little knowledge of the different musical clefs then a cello part can be printed off in a treble clef. As the range of the cello extends lower than the treble clef can accommodate, we’ve been handed parts with about 10 ledger lines at the bottom of the stave, the notes overlapping the stave below - almost impossible to read. The other problem with playing chords in via a keyboard is that it ends up quite ‘fixed’ with no ‘feel’ and the inner parts don’t have a satisfying musical line - therefore so much of the potential from using live strings is lost.
Writing for any collection of instruments is all about the individual line of each instrument. If the parts are moving in chords, each part sounds best when it is playing a melody that harmonises with the rest of the parts in the piece or track.
Very often, expensive studio time can be wasted whilst session musicians sit around re-writing scored midi parts until they are both readable and playable, so as a matter of course we now do ask clients to send through midi-created parts so that we can tidy them up before the session, and save everyone time and money. We charge a nominal fee of £40 per hour for this - the same fee as for string arranging from the original track in the first place.
Although it might seem cheaper to create parts using a midi, it can be just as quick and economical to hire a string arranger to score the parts properly for strings in the first place - and results will be more effective with creative harmonies and melodic lines written in to add richness. As an example, paying a string arranger £40 per hour to spend a couple of hours correctly notating and orchestrating will potentially save hours in the studio and the musicians will be able to go in and just play everything right first time from a properly written score, using each instrument to it’s full potential.
One of the most wide ranging techniques on a bowed stringed instrument is what is commonly referred to as staccato. In essence, staccato is where the notes are short and spiky - this can be achieved in different ways. The Martele (pronounced mart -el-lay) bow stroke is where the bow is gently pressed to the string and released rapidly to create a little ‘kick’ or accent at the beginning of each note. It can be played rapidly or slowly and there is generally a small gap between each note. Whereas this would be rarely applied for a commercial string session on a pop or rock track, it could be used in a more classical sound - perhaps for a film soundtrack or television production.
The spiccato bow stroke is what is commonly referred to as ‘off the string bowing’ because the bow leaves the string at the end of each stroke. This gives the music a distinctive sound which can be used in a variety of different context as it’s so versatile. Spiccato bowing is great for rapid scales and will create a ‘brilliant’ effect (as in bright) or could be applied in a slower and heavier passage to add drama.
Adding variety with spiccato and martele bowings can accentuate the strings by using the whole section, or just one group of instruments (for example, only violas) and both are widely used ways of adding interest or energy when orchestrating for strings.
